5 C O N T E N T S PART I A DESCRIPTIVE VIEW ON ENGLISH SYNTAX ................ 13 Chapter 1 Types of Syntactic Analysis ....................................... 15 1.1 The components of language ..................................................... 15 1.2. Linguistic knowledge (competence) and performance. ............ 16 1.2.1. Linguistic knowledge (competence) ................................. 16 1.2.2. Linguistic performance ..................................................... 17 1.3. Kinds of syntactic analysis ...................................................... 18 1.3.1. Descriptive grammar ............................................................. 18 1.3.2. Bloomfieldian structural linguistics ................................ 19 1.3.3. The post-Bloomfieldian school: the structuralist approach ....20 1.3.4. ‘Deep’ syntax ................................................................... 22 1.3.4.1. Tagmemic theory ................................................... 22 1.3.4.2. Scale and category grammar .................................. 23 1.3.4.3. Stratificational grammar ........................................ 24 1.3.4.4. Case grammar ........................................................ 25 1.3.5. Generative-Transformational Grammar ........................... 27 1.3.5.1. Noam Chomsky’s contribution .............................. 27 1.3.5.2. X-bar syntax........................................................... 31 1.3.5.3. The Minimalist Programme ................................... 35 1.3.6. Functional/Systemic Grammar ......................................... 37 1.3.7. Universal Grammar .......................................................... 37 Chapter 2 The Classification of Sentences ................................. 42 2.1. Classification in point of trend or purpose of the communication.....42 2.2. Classification in point of structure (of the communication)/ of composition ......................................................................... 44 2.3. Classification in point of status or grammatical dependence ... 44 6 Chapter 3 The Compound Sentence ........................................... 48 3.1. Copulative coordination ........................................................... 48 3.2. Disjunctive coordination ........................................................... 52 3.3. Adversative coordination .......................................................... 53 3.4. Consecutive (resultative) coordination ..................................... 54 3.5. Causal (explanatory) coordination ............................................ 54 Chapter 4 The Complex Sentence ............................................... 55 4.1 Subordination. Characteristics of Subordinate Clauses ............. 55 4.2. Formal Indicators of Subordination .......................................... 57 4.3. Classifications of Subordinate Clauses ..................................... 58 4.3.1. Structural classification .................................................... 58 4.3.2. Functional classification ................................................... 59 Chapter 5 Nominal Clauses .......................................................... 61 5.1. The Subject Clause ................................................................... 61 5.1.1. Introductory elements ....................................................... 61 5.1.2. The position of subject clauses ......................................... 62 5.1.3. Classes of words that trigger a Subject Clause ................. 63 5.1.4. Constraints upon the moods and tenses in Subject Clauses ...64 5.1.5. Non-finite forms ............................................................... 67 5.1.6. Subject That Clauses across registers ............................... 68 5.2. The Predicative Clause ............................................................. 68 5.2.1. Introductory elements ....................................................... 69 5.2.2. The position of Predicative Clauses ................................. 69 5.2.3. Classes of words that trigger a Predicative Clause ........... 69 5.2.4. Sequence of tenses in Predicative Clauses ....................... 70 5.2.5. Non-finite forms ............................................................... 70 5.2.6. Predicative Clauses across registers ................................. 70 5.3. The Object Clause .................................................................... 71 5.3.1. The Direct Object Clause ................................................. 71 5.3.1.1. Introductory elements ............................................ 71 5.3.1.2. The position of the Direct Object Clause ............... 75 7 5.3.1.3. Classes of words that trigger a DO clause ............. 75 5.3.1.4. Constraints upon the moods and tenses in Direct Object Clauses ....................................................... 75 5.3.1.5. Non-finite forms .................................................... 79 5.3.1.6. That Clauses across registers ................................. 80 5.3.2. The Indirect Object Clause ............................................... 82 5.3.3. The Prepositional Object Clause ...................................... 82 5.3.3.1. Introductory elements ............................................ 82 5.3.3.2. The deletion of the preposition .............................. 83 5.3.3.3. Sequence of tenses in Prepositional Object Clause ....83 5.3.3.4. Non-finite forms .................................................... 85 Chapter 6 Relative/Attributive Clauses ....................................... 86 6.1. Restrictive/Defining Relative Clauses ...................................... 86 6.1.1. Introductory elements ....................................................... 86 6.1.2. Transformations involving Restrictive Relative Clauses . 92 6.1.3. Sequence of tenses in Restrictive Relative Clauses.......... 94 6.2. Non-Restrictive/Descriptive Relative Clauses .................... 94 6.2.1. Introductory elements ....................................................... 95 6.2.2. Sentential Relative Clauses .............................................. 96 6.3. Appositive Relative Clauses ..................................................... 96 6.3.1. Introductory elements ....................................................... 96 6.3.2. Mood constraints .............................................................. 97 6.3.3. Non-finite forms ............................................................... 97 6.3.4. Introductory emphatic sentences ...................................... 97 6.4. Relative Attributive Clauses across registers ........................... 99 Chapter 7 Adverbial Clauses ...................................................... 100 7.1. General characteristics ............................................................ 100 7.2. The Adverbial Clause of Time ............................................... 101 7.2.1. Introductory elements ..................................................... 101 7.2.2. The Position of finite Time Clauses ............................... 102 7.2.3. Sequence of Tenses in Time Clauses ............................. 103 8 7.2.4. Non-finite forms ............................................................. 106 7.2.5. Non-finite forms ............................................................. 108 7.3. The Adverbial Clause of Place ............................................... 110 7.3.1. Introductory elements ..................................................... 110 7.3.2. Sequence of Tenses in Adverbial Clauses of Place ........ 110 7.3.3. Non-finite forms ............................................................. 111 7.4. The Adverbial Clause of Manner ........................................... 111 7.4.1.The Adverbial Clause of Manner Proper ......................... 111 7.4.1.1. Introductory elements .......................................... 111 7.4.1.2. Sequence of Tenses in Adverbial Clauses of Manner Proper .................................................. 111 7.4.1.3. Non-finite forms .................................................. 111 7.4.2. Adverbial Clauses of Quantity, Degree, Approximation .....112 7.4.2.1. Introductory elements .......................................... 112 7.4.2.2. Sequence of Tenses in Adverbial Clauses of Quantity ........................................................... 113 7.5. The Adverbial Clause of Comparison .................................... 113 7.5.1. Introductory elements ..................................................... 113 7.5.2. Sequence of Tenses in Adverbial Clauses of Comparison......114 7.5.3. Non-finite forms ............................................................. 114 7.6. The Adverbial Clause of Compariosn and Concession .......... 114 7.6.1. Introductory elements ..................................................... 114 7.6.2. Mood Constraints in Adverbial Clauses of Comparison and Concession .............................................................. 115 7.6.3. Non-finite forms ............................................................. 116 7.7. The Adverbial Clause of Cause/Reason ................................. 116 7.7.1. Introductory elements ..................................................... 116 7.7.2. Sequence of Tenses in Adverbial Clauses of Reason ..... 117 7.7.3. Non-finite forms ............................................................. 117 7.8. The Adverbial Clause of Concession ..................................... 118 7.8.1. Introductory elements ..................................................... 118 7.8.2. Tense and Mood Constraints in Adverbial Clauses of Concession ................................................................. 120 9 7.8.3. Non-finite forms ............................................................. 122 7.9. The Adverbial Clause of Purpose ........................................... 123 7.9.1. Clauses of Affirmative Purpose...................................... 123 7.9.1.1. Introductory elements .......................................... 123 7.9.1.2. Tense and Mood Constraints in Affirmative Purpose Clauses ................................................... 123 7.9.2. Clauses of Negative Purpose .......................................... 124 7.9.2.1. Introductory elements .......................................... 124 7.9.2.2. Tense and Mood Constraints in Negative Purpose Clauses ................................................... 125 7.9.2.3. Non-finite forms .................................................. 125 7.9.3. Purpose Clauses across registers .................................... 127 7.10. The Adverbial Clause of Result ............................................ 128 7.10.1. Introductory elements ................................................... 128 7.10.2. The use of Tenses in Adverbial Clauses of Result ....... 129 7.10.3. Non-finite forms ........................................................... 130 7.11. The Adverbial Clause of Condition ...................................... 131 7.11.1. Introductory elements ................................................... 131 7.11.2. Types of Conditional Sentences. Characteristics ......... 132 7.11.3. Special Constructions in Conditional Sentences .......... 139 7.11.4. Non-finite forms ........................................................... 142 7.11.5. Frequency of Clauses of Condition across registers ..... 143 7.12. The Adverbial Clause of Exception ...................................... 144 7.13. The Adverbial Clause of Relation ........................................ 145 Chapter 8 Direct and Indirect Speech ....................................... 146 8.1. Pronoun changes ..................................................................... 147 8.2. Verb changes .......................................................................... 148 8.3. Syntactic changes ................................................................... 153 8.3.1. Declarative sentences ..................................................... 153 8.3.2. Interrogative sentences ................................................... 155 8.3.3. Imperative sentences ...................................................... 156 8.3.4. Exclamatory sentences ................................................... 158 10 8.4. Free Indirect Speech ............................................................... 159 Chapter 9 Pro-forms .................................................................. 160 9.1. Pro-forms for noun phrases .................................................... 160 9.2. Pro-forms for adverbials (Pro-adverbials) .............................. 161 9.3. Pro-forms for predicates and predication (Pro-verbs) ............ 162 9.4. Pro-forms for clauses .............................................................. 164 PART II A MULTIPLE APPROACH TO SYNTAX .............................. 167 Chapter 1 Syntactic Analysis of Multi-Word Units.................. 169 1.1. Multi-word units ..................................................................... 169 1.2. Idioms..................................................................................... 169 1.2.1. Defining idioms.............................................................. 169 1.2.2. Syntactic and semantic analysis of idioms..................... 170 1.2.3. Functional idioms........................................................... 172 1.3. Collocations............................................................................ 173 1.4. Lexical bundles ....................................................................... 176 1.4.1. Defining lexical bundles ................................................. 176 1.4.2. Structural aspects of lexical bundles .............................. 177 1.4.3. Lexical bundles in various registers ............................... 178 1.4.4. Lexical bundles and idioms ............................................ 179 Chapter 2 Syntax-Semantics Interface ...................................... 183 2.1. The sentence – sense and reference ........................................ 183 2.2. Pronouns and co-referentiality................................................ 185 2.3. Kinds of rules violation .......................................................... 186 2.3.1. Anomaly ......................................................................... 186 2.3.2. Metaphor ........................................................................ 187 2.3.3. Idioms ............................................................................. 189 2.3.4. Dead metaphors and idioms ........................................... 195 2.4. Leech’s view on syntax and semantics relation ...................... 197 11 2.5. Generative semantics vs. Interpretive semantics .................... 199 2.6. Meaning and grammar from the cognitive perspective .......... 204 Chapter 3 Syntax-Pragmatics Interface .................................... 207 3.1. Introduction ............................................................................ 207 3.2. Grammar (and syntax) vs. pragmatics .................................... 208 3.2.1. Sentence and clause ........................................................ 208 3.2.2. Complex sentences and speech acts ............................... 211 3.2.3. Compound sentences. Coordination, subordination and pragmatics ............................................................... 212 3.2.4. Complex sentences. Clause ordering and role ................ 220 3.3. Theories of syntax implying pragmatic features .................... 221 3.3.1. Lexical-functional grammar ........................................... 221 3.3.2. Cognitive grammar ......................................................... 222 3.3.3. Construction grammar .................................................... 224 3.3.4. Functional grammar ....................................................... 224 3.4. New interdisciplinary directions of study ............................... 224 3.4.1. Event semantics .............................................................. 224 3.4.2. Modality ......................................................................... 226 List of Authors ............................................................................. 227 Bibliography ................................................................................. 229